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The ancient walled city of Nicopolis, north west Greece

Nicoplos, the city of victory, was built by Augustus Caesar, known earlier in his life as Octavian, to commemorate his victory at the naval Battle of Actium, 31 BC. The battle itself was not one of the great triumphs of antiquity but the significance of the victory was immense. To understand this, you have to look at the balance of power in the Roman Empire during this period.

Julius Caesar was Emperor of Rome. He had an affair with Cleopatra and she bore him his only son, Caesarian. However Julius Caesar had no legitimate heir, so in 44 BC he adopted his great nephew, Octavian, and declared Octavian as his heir. When Caesar was assasinated, the conspirators had the aim of Rome becoming a republic again. However the power vacuum was filled with a two way dictatorship, Marc Anthony, a respected general, and Octavian, who agreed on an east-west split of the empire between them. In the early stages Octavian was young and fairly unestablished apart from family ties but he controlled the west, a distinct advantage as he was in Rome. where he could wield more influence, as Anthony had the east.

The story goes Anthony met and fell in love with Cleopatra. Some woman to attract two such powerful men. Not that Cleopatra was a shrinking violet; she had murdered her brother in order to be sole ruler! She was an intelligent, well-read woman, who could speak several languages. Cleopatra believed that the best way to ensure Egypt's prosperity was to again ally herself to the Roman Empire. A year after they met Cleopatra gave birth to twins. Anthony married Octavian's sister Octavia in 36BC, around the time that Cleopatra gave birth to their third child. This gave Octavian the ideal opening to start a propaganda war against Anthony, to defend his sister’s honour and to protect Rome against foreign influence. When Anthony gifted parts of the eastern Roman empire to Cleopatra and her children, and set about divorcing Octavia, in order to marry Cleopatra, this really set the cat among the pigeons.

The power struggle between Octavian and Anthony (aligned with Cleopatra) came to a head at the Battle Of Actium. The story goes that Cleopatra fled the battle and Anthony followed her bringing about their defeat. Another version of events claims that Octavian had a superior fleet of smaller more manoeuvrable ships and a better naval strategy, whereas Anthony was more used to land battles. Yet another version relates that Cleopatra fled (as had been agreed with Anthony prior to the battle, as soon as she saw an escape route through Octavian's fleet). This was primarily to ensure the safety of her treasure ship.

It is said that she used the Leftkas Channel, just south of Actium on her retreat. Ironically Octavian had recently restored this channel. It is known locally as Cleopatra's channel. Anthony and Cleopatra both escaped to Alexandria. Within a year they had both committed suicide. Anthony apparently believed that Cleopatra was dead and killed himself. Soon afterward Cleopatra committed suicide rather than be captured by the hostile Roman forces.

The victory at Actium meant that Octavian was now the supreme ruler of Rome and Egypt became part of the Roman Empire. Caesar and Cleopatra's son, Caesarian, was killed, however Cleopartra's three children fathered by Anthony were spared.

Octavian built a war memorial on the site of his battle tent. He thanked the Gods for his victory saying that the sight of Eutychos (Luck) and Nikon (Victor) before the Battle, foretold victory. Therefore the monument stressed it was built in honour of a leader favoured by the Gods. As was the custom, bronze battering rams and the prows of the captured ships were built into the walls. The site was consecrated to Neptune (as it was a naval victory) and Mars (the God of war and victory).
Octavian also dedicated the war monument to Apollo. Prior to the founding of Nicopolis there had been a sanctuary of Apollo at Actium. Octavian liked to portray himself as the one chosen by Apollo, who was the ancestral God of the Julius clan. Apollo was known as the God of discipline and morality a befitting victor to Anthony portrayed as the debauched adulterer under the spell of a foreign Queen. Octavian reinstated the Actian Games, sacred to Apollo.

Octavian renamed himself Augustus Caesar but was tactful enough to retain the Senate in Rome although he was in fact a dictator. He portrayed himself as the saviour of Rome. Augustus was declared a God after death, in line with the Greek belief that if a person bestowed gifts worth of a God during his lifetime, he should be honoured a God. Augustus was viewed as the first Emperor of Rome saving the Roman Empire from decline and civil war.

The Odeon


The Nympheaum

The city of Nicopolis was built to commemorate this battle and to satisfy military and trade needs of the region. Nicopolis was located on the narrowest part of the peninsula close to the Gulf of Arta, meaning it had 2 harbours, one in the gulf and one on the Ionian Sea. It was built in the typical Roman style of fortified towns, with 4 quarters and 2 main roads. The city was protected by 5kms of fortified walls. It took 6 years to build the 27 mile long aqueduct from the Louros springs to carry water to the city. The aqueduct ended at the Nymphaeum, which doubled as a water cistern and the seaward gate to the city. The inhabitants of the nearby cities of Etolia, Acarnania and Epirus, as well Corinth and as far afield as Italy, were forced to come and live in the new city. Nicoplis not only became the capital city of the region but also a focal point of the Mediterranean due to its geographical position bridging Greece and Italy. Strabo, a contemporary Greek historian, described Nicopolis as populous, with numbers increasing daily. The population reached around 300,000. The city flourished, boasting grand public buildings such as the Odeon, the theatre and the stadium. The city even minted its own coins.

St Paul the Apostle speaks of Nicopolis in Titus 3:12, written 64-65 AD, requesting that Titus meet him in Nicopolis, saying, "I have determined to Winter there".

In the late first century AD, Epictetus, one of the most famous Greek stoic philosphers, lived in Nicopolis. He lived in poverty whilst teaching. One of his students, Flavius Arrian, took notes, as most Greek philosophers did not write down their words. Epictetus believed we should accept the events that happen in our lives. Our aim should be peace of mind, with the highest pleasure being the absence of pain. Arrian progressed to consul, under the reign of Hadrian and wrote a history of Alexander the Greek.

Nicopolis' decline began in the 3rd century, partly due to the crisis in the Roman Empire, earthquakes and barbarian raids. By the end of the 5th century, after the conquest of the city by the Vandals (an East Germanic tribe), it was becoming impossible to maintain the 5km of walls and the city contracted to around one sixth of its original size and new sturdy walls were erected. Buildings just outside the new walls were demolished and you can still see some of the material from them used in the new walls. There are several churches remaining from this early Christian period,

However the city was destroyed in the 9th - 10th centuries by the invading Bulgarian force.

Nicopolis is undergoing significant restoration at present. When I visited in May 2003, there were several teams of archaeologists at work. The Odean was cordoned off as it had been deemed unsafe. There is a small museum at the south eastern corner. However a new large museum is under construction nearby. The hope seems to be that the area, once restored, can become a better-known Heritage Site and attract more visitors.

It is hard to imagine the glorious city of the past but it certainly has a fascinating history. It is even claimed that if Anthony and Cleopatra had been victorious, that there would have been more harmony between the East and the West.

The town of Preveza, around 8 km south is now the main town of the region. Preveza has a small airport, shared with the military. It only takes minutes to reach Nicopolis from the airport, as a tunnel has been constructed under the estuary. Until recently you had to wait for a ferry to make the crossing.

There are other sites of historical interest to visit in the vicinity.

On the island of Lefkas is the Cape of the Lady. Lefkas was originally known as Leucas, meaning white, after the white cliffs in the south of the island. Sappho, called the 10th muse by Homer (female poets were not given full public recognition in ancient times). It is told that Sapphos leapt off the cliffs after being spurned by Pheon, the ferryman. Sapphos was believed to be a lesbian and many feminist writers have since disputed the tale, saying it is a conspiracy to imply that in the end Sapphos saw the light and died over heterosexual love! In Roman times it was popular for rejected lovers to re-enact the jump, albeit wearing wings and arranging a rescue party.

The Necromandio

The Necromandio, near Ammoudia, north of Nicopolis is where the living were said to be able to communicate with the dead. According to mythology, where the river emerges from the narrows near Glyki was where the souls of dead dwelled. The river was the channel over which Charon (Death) carried the souls of the dead into the realm of Hades, located in the depths of Lake Acheron. The Necromandia was built on top of a cave on the northwestern shore of the lake. This oracle was visited by numerous pilgrims, who were placed on a diet of beans and lupins for a few days to prepare them for communication with the beloved deceased in the sacred crypt. Remains of a crane device thought to have been used to lower figures of the dead into the chamber have been found. Also the walls of the crypt are over 3 metres thick, making it possible to disguise secret passages, so it appears there was a bit of ancient jiggery-pokery.

Also fascinating if slightly further afield is Delphi, the site of the most important oracle of ancient times. Delphi was regarded as the centre of the universe. The story goes that Zeus released two eagles at the far end of the Earth and Delphi marks the spot where they met. Pilgrims journeyed from far and wide to consult the oracle and Delphi grew rich on the taxes payable to approach the altar of Apollo. The priestess of Delphi, the Pythia, would retreat into the adyton, where she would enter a trance like state and make prophecies. However often her words didn't make sense and they were deciphered by male priests. Plutarch attributed her powers to the inhalation of vapours that rose from the earth in the adyton. This has proven to be the likely explanation as 2 geological faults intersect directly under the temple and there are traces of the hallucinogenic gas, ethylene, having risen from nearby springs.

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